Optimización del comportamiento

El comportamiento satisface u optimiza la obtención de un recurso en función de su abundancia y de la capacidad de utilizarlo por parte del individuo. La optimización del comportamiento se puede conseguir maximizando la tasa neta de obtención y manejo del recurso, la eficiencia o un valor intermedio entre la tasa neta y la eficiencia, dependiendo de las circunstancias en las que el individuo ejecuta una pauta de comportamiento. Los tipos de comportamiento más frecuentes en los análisis de optimización son la composición de la dieta, el tiempo de permanencia en un lugar y cualquier decisión que incluya el retorno a un lugar central. En todos ellos se debe estimar la diferencia entre el valor del recurso que el individuo ha seleccionado con respecto al valor promedio de ese recurso en el ambiente donde el animal puede desplazarse. La variabilidad temporal y en cantidad del recurso que se puede obtener favorece a los animales que son sensibles a la variabilidad o riesgo, los cuales maximizan la tasa de obtención del recurso a corto plazo. Dependiendo de sus reservas y expectativas de obtención del recurso, los individuos sensibles al riesgo evitan las situaciones con alta variabilidad temporal cuando sus reservas son altas y las expectativas bajas. Cuando la variabilidad afecta a la cantidad de recurso, los animales con pocas reservas pueden optar por el riesgo para la obtención del recurso, pero este fenómeno de sensibilidad al riesgo en cantidad de recurso es menos frecuente a la sensibilidad al riesgo temporal. La optimización del comportamiento en presencia de otros individuos se puede clasificar en dos grandes categorías: economías de agregación (tasa de obtención de recursos aumenta en ciertos tamaños de grupo) y economías de dispersión (tasa de obtención de recursos disminuye con el tamaño de grupo). En una economía de agregación, la tasa de obtención de recursos suele tener un pico máximo a un tamaño de grupo óptimo, aunque los grupos pueden agrandarse hasta llegar al tamaño estable. Sin embargo, grupos mayores que el tamaño estable se consideran dentro de un equilibrio inestable debido a que la tasa de obtención de recursos es menor que si el individuo se alimentara solitariamente. En una economía de dispersión, la presencia de otros individuos induce cambios en la selección del lugar de obtención del recurso, de manera que en circunstancias de renovación constante del recurso y tiempo suficiente para el cambio de lugar se produce una distribución de los individuos entre zonas hasta alcanzar un equilibrio en, por ejemplo, la maximización de la tasa neta de obtención del recurso, lo que se denomina una distribución libre-ideal de los individuos. En general, la optimización del comportamiento no suele ser perfecta, lo que se traduce en una distribución subóptima de los individuos, que ocupan en mayor proporción las zonas con menor cantidad de recurso. Con independencia de las circunstancias en los que los animales optimizan el comportamiento y de las reglas que maximizan el beneficio obtenido, los modelos de optimización se han revelado como una herramienta útil para investigar el comportamiento. La posibilidad de que el individuo maximice la tasa de obtención de un recurso induce al investigador a plantear tal posibilidad como una hipótesis nula en su trabajo, de manera que es preciso estimar el valor del recurso que el animal intenta conseguir, los tiempo de obtención y manejo y los costes de su obtención, así como su valor marginal y el efecto que puede tener la competencia o simplemente la interferencia con otros individuos del grupo en la optimización del comportamiento. El rechazo de la optimización como hipótesis nula puede llevar a nuevos descubrimientos sobre las restricciones, límites e incluso nuevas reglas de comportamiento, que de manera contraintuitiva pueden revelar pautas de comportamiento subóptimas pero adaptativasPeer reviewe

The Role of Habitat Shaping Motion Detection in Two Songbirds

Double cones of birds are photoreceptors associated with motion perception, and perceiving motion is highly important to detect predators. Predation risks varies between habitats and may impose selective pressures that could affect organisms’ traits. There is evidence that birds show interspecific variations in visual system properties, such as the photoreceptor densities (single and double cones) and distribution across the retina. However, little is known about the relationship between the distribution of double cones and predator scanning strategies in birds living in different habitats. The goal of this study was to compare double cones distributions of birds that live in open vs. closed habitats. We measured the density and distribution of double cones in 2 species of the order Passeriformes. We found that the density of double cones in both species (open and closed habitat) is greater in the retina dorsal region. This result suggests that other visual traits might be taken into account in future work to better elucidate the relationship between habitat type and sensing motion. Moreover, the White-throated Sparrow had a more homogeneous distribution of double cones, result expected for this closed habitat species. Future work is suggested to be done using more individuals and more species to assess fully understand the evolution of predator- prey interactions and learn how prey can optimize vigilance strategies in different habitats with different predation pressure

Testing a key assumption of using drones as frightening devices: Do birds perceive drones as risky?

Wildlife managers have recently suggested the use of unmanned aircraft systems or drones as nonlethal hazing tools to deter birds from areas of human-wildlife conflict. However, it remains unclear if birds perceive common drone platforms as threatening. Based on field studies assessing behavioral and physiological responses, it is generally assumed that birds perceive less risk from drones than from predators. However, studies controlling for multiple confounding effects have not been conducted. Our goal was to establish the degree to which the perception of risk by birds would vary between common drone platforms relative to a predator model when flown at different approach types. We evaluated the behavioral responses of individual Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) to 3 drone platforms: a predator model, a fixed-wing resembling an airplane, and a multirotor, approaching either head-on or overhead. Blackbirds became alert earlier (by 13.7 s), alarm-called more frequently (by a factor of 12), returned to forage later (by a factor of 4.7), and increased vigilance (by a factor of 1.3) in response to the predator model compared with the multirotor. Blackbirds also perceived the fixed-wing as riskier than the multirotor, but less risky than the predator model. Overhead approaches mostly failed to elicit flight in blackbirds across all platform types, and no blackbirds took flight in response to the multirotor at either overhead or head-on approaches. Our findings demonstrate that birds perceived drones with predatory characteristics as riskier than common drone models (i.e. fixed-wing and multirotor platforms). We recommend that drones be modified with additional stimuli to increase perceived risk when used as frightening devices, but avoided if used for wildlife monitoring. RESUMEN Los gestores de vida silvestre han sugerido recientemente el uso de sistemas aéreos no tripulados o drones como herramientas no letales de atosigamiento para disuadir a las aves de áreas de conflicto entre humanos y vida silvestre. Sin embargo, aún no está claro si las aves perciben a los drones comunes como una amenaza. Tomando como base los estudios de campo que evalúan las respuestas comportamentales y fisiológicas, por lo general se asume que las aves perciben un riesgo menor de parte de los drones que de los depredadores. Sin embargo, no se han realizado estudios que controlen los múltiples efectos contrapuestos. Nuestro objetivo fue establecer la variación en el grado de percepción de riesgo de las aves frente a drones comunes y a un modelo de depredador, considerando diferentes tipos de acercamiento de vuelo. Evaluamos las respuestas de comportamiento de individuos de Agelaius phoeniceus frente a tres tipos de drones: un modelo depredador, un modelo de ala rígida parecido a un avión y un modelo multi-rotor, todos acercándose ya sea de frente o por encima. Los individuos de A. phoeniceus se alertaron antes (por 13.7 s), realizaron llamados de alarma más frecuentemente (por un factor de 12), regresaron a forrajear más tarde (por un factor de 4.7) y aumentaron la vigilancia (por un factor de 1.3) en respuesta al modelo de depredador comparado con el multi-rotor. A. phoeniceus también percibió el modelo de ala fija como más riesgoso que el multi-rotor, pero menos riesgoso que el depredador. La mayoría de los acercamientos por encima, considerando todos los tipos de drones, no provocaron el vuelo de A. phoeniceus, y ningún individuo de A. phoeniceus voló en respuesta al multi-rotor, ya sea en los acercamientos de frente o por encima. Nuestros resultados demuestran que las aves perciben a los drones con características de depredador como más riesgosos que los modelos de drone comunes (i.e. de ala fija o multi-rotor). Recomendamos que los drones sean modificados con estímulos adicionales para aumentar el riesgo percibido cuando se los usa como dispositivos de intimidación, pero evitar modificarlos si se los usa para monitoreo de fauna silvestre

Can we use antipredator behavior theory to predict wildlife responses to high-speed vehicles?

Animals seem to rely on antipredator behavior to avoid vehicle collisions. There is an extensive body of antipredator behavior theory that have been used to predict the distance/time animals should escape from predators. These models have also been used to guide empirical research on escape behavior from vehicles. However, little is known as to whether antipredator behavior models are appropriate to apply to an approaching high-speed vehicle scenario. We addressed this gap by (a) providing an overview of the main hypotheses and predictions of different antipredator behavior models via a literature review, (b) exploring whether these models can generate quantitative predictions on escape distance when parameterized with empirical data from the literature, and (c) evaluating their sensitivity to vehicle approach speed using a simulation approach wherein we assessed model performance based on changes in effect size with variations in the slope of the flight initiation distance (FID) vs. approach speed relationship. The slope of the FID vs. approach speed relationship was then related back to three different behavioral rules animals may rely on to avoid approaching threats: the spatial, temporal, or delayed margin of safety. We used literature on birds for goals (b) and (c). Our review considered the following eight models: the economic escape model, Blumstein’s economic escape model, the optimal escape model, the perceptual limit hypothesis, the visual cue model, the flush early and avoid the rush (FEAR) hypothesis, the looming stimulus hypothesis, and the Bayesian model of escape behavior. We were able to generate quantitative predictions about escape distance with the last five models. However, we were only able to assess sensitivity to vehicle approach speed for the last three models. The FEAR hypothesis is most sensitive to high-speed vehicles when the species follows the spatial (FID remains constant as speed increases) and the temporal margin of safety (FID increases with an increase in speed) rules of escape. The looming stimulus effect hypothesis reached small to intermediate levels of sensitivity to high-speed vehicles when a species follows the delayed margin of safety (FID decreases with an increase in speed). The Bayesian optimal escape model reached intermediate levels of sensitivity to approach speed across all escape rules (spatial, temporal, delayed margins of safety) but only for larger (\u3e 1 kg) species, but was not sensitive to speed for smaller species. Overall, no single antipredator behavior model could characterize all different types of escape responses relative to vehicle approach speed but some models showed some levels of sensitivity for certain rules of escape behavior. We derive some applied applications of our findings by suggesting the estimation of critical vehicle approach speeds for managing populations that are especially susceptible to road mortality. Overall, we recommend that new escape behavior models specifically tailored to high-speeds vehicles should be developed to better predict quantitatively the responses of animals to an increase in the frequency of cars, airplanes, drones, etc. they will face in the next decade

Speed Kills: Effects of Vehicle Speed on Avian Escape Behavior

The avoidance of vehicles is a common challenge for birds in the modern world. Birds generally rely on antipredator behaviors to avoid vehicles, but modern vehicles are faster than predators. We predicted that birds may be unable to accurately estimate the speed of approaching vehicles, which could contribute to miscalculations in avoidance behaviors and cause collisions. We tested our prediction in two studies. In the first (DeVault et al. 2014), we baited turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) to roads with animal carcasses and measured flight initiation distance (FID) when driving a truck towards them at 30, 60, or 90 km/h. Despite a wide range of responses, FID of vultures increased by a factor of 1.85 as speed increased from 30 to 90 km/h. At 90 km/h there was no clear trend in FID across replicates; birds were equally likely to initiate escape behavior at 40 m as at 220 m. Seventeen percent of vehicle approaches at 90 km/h resulted in near collisions with vultures, compared to none during 60 km/h approaches and 4% during 30 km/h approaches. In the second experiment (DeVault et al. 2015), we used video playback to investigate escape behaviors of captive brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) in response to virtual vehicles appearing to approach at speeds ranging from 60-360 km/h. Flight initiation distance remained similar across vehicle speeds, indicating that avoidance behaviors in cowbirds were based on distance rather than time available for escape. Cowbirds generally did not initiate flight with enough time to avoid “collision” when virtual vehicle speed exceeded 120 km/h. Although potentially effective for escaping predators, the decision-making processes used by turkey vultures and cowbirds in our experiments appear maladaptive in the context of avoiding vehicles, and may represent important determinants of bird-vehicle collisions

Vision in an abundant North American bird: The Red-winged Blackbird

Avian vision is fundamentally different from human vision; however, even within birds there are substantial between species differences in visual perception in terms of visual acuity, visual coverage, and color vision. However, there are not many species that have all these visual traits described, which can constrain our ability to study the evolution of visual systems in birds. To start addressing this gap, we characterized multiple traits of the visual system (visual coverage, visual acuity, centers of acute vision, and color vision) of the Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), one of the most abundant and studied birds in North America. We found that Red-winged Blackbirds have: wide visual coverage; one center of acute vision per eye (fovea) projecting fronto-laterally with high density of single and double cones, making it the center of both chromatic and achromatic vision; a wide binocular field that does not have the input of the centers of acute vision; and an ultraviolet sensitive visual system. With this information, we parameterized a Red-winged Blackbird-specific perceptual model considering different plumage patches. We found that the male red epaulet was chromatically conspicuous but with minimal achromatic signal, but the male yellow patch had a lower chromatic but a higher achromatic signal, which may be explained by the pigment composition of the feathers. However, the female epaulet was not visually conspicuous in both the chromatic and achromatic dimensions compared with other female feather patches. We discuss the implications of this visual system configuration relative to the foraging, antipredator, mate choice, and social behaviors of Red-winged Blackbirds. Our findings can be used for comparative studies as well as for making more species-specific predictions about different visual behaviors for future empirical testing

Gaze sensitivity: function and mechanisms from sensory and cognitive perspectives

Sensitivity to the gaze of other individuals has long been a primary focus in sociocognitive research on humans and other animals. Information about where others are looking may often be of adaptive value in social interactions and predator avoidance, but studies across a range of taxa indicate there are substantial differences in the extent to which animals obtain and use information about other individuals' gaze direction. As the literature expands, it is becoming increasingly difficult to make comparisons across taxa as experiments adopt and adjust different methodologies to account for differences between species in their socioecology, sensory systems and possibly also their underlying cognitive mechanisms. Furthermore, as more species are found to exhibit gaze sensitivity, more terminology arises to describe the behaviours. To clarify the field, we propose a restricted nomenclature that defines gaze sensitivity in terms of observable behaviour, independent of the underlying mechanisms. This is particularly useful in nonhuman animal studies where cognitive interpretations are ambiguous. We then describe how socioecological factors may influence whether species will attend to gaze cues, and suggest links between ultimate factors and proximate mechanisms such as cognition and perception. In particular, we argue that variation in sensory systems, such as retinal specializations and the position of the eyes, will determine whether gaze cues (e.g. head movement) are perceivable during visual fixation. We end by making methodological recommendations on how to apply these variations in socioecology and visual systems to advance the field of gaze research

Assessing bird avoidance of high-contrast lights using a choice test approach: implications for reducing human-induced avian mortality

Background Avian collisions with man-made objects and vehicles (e.g., buildings, cars, airplanes, power lines) have increased recently. Lights have been proposed to alert birds and minimize the chances of collisions, but it is challenging to choose lights that are tuned to the avian eye and can also lead to avoidance given the differences between human and avian vision. We propose a choice test to address this problem by first identifying wavelengths of light that would over-stimulate the retina using species-specific perceptual models and by then assessing the avoidance/attraction responses of brown-headed cowbirds to these lights during daytime using a behavioral assay. Methods We used perceptual models to estimate wavelength-specific light emitting diode (LED) lights with high chromatic contrast. The behavioral assay consisted of an arena where the bird moved in a single direction and was forced to make a choice (right/left) using a single-choice design (one side with the light on, the other with the light off) under diurnal light conditions. Results First, we identified lights with high saliency from the cowbird visual perspective: LED lights with peaks at 380 nm (ultraviolet), 470 nm (blue), 525 nm (green), 630 nm (red), and broad-spectrum (white) LED lights. Second, we found that cowbirds significantly avoided LED lights with peaks at 470 and 630 nm, but did not avoid or prefer LED lights with peaks at 380 and 525 nm or white lights. Discussion The two lights avoided had the highest chromatic contrast but relatively lower levels of achromatic contrast. Our approach can optimize limited resources to narrow down wavelengths of light with high visual saliency for a target species leading to avoidance. These lights can be used as candidates for visual deterrents to reduce collisions with man-made objects and vehicles

Binocular vision and foraging in ducks, geese and swans (Anatidae)

Wide variation in visual field configuration across avian species is hypothesized to be driven primarily by foraging ecology and predator detection. While some studies of selected taxa have identified relationships between foraging ecology and binocular field characteristics in particular species, few have accounted for the relevance of shared ancestry. We conducted a large-scale, comparative analysis across 39 Anatidae species to investigate the relationship between the foraging ecology traits of diet or behaviour and binocular field parameters, while controlling for phylogeny. We used phylogenetic models to examine correlations between traits and binocular field characteristics, using unidimensional and morphometric approaches. We found that foraging behaviour influenced three parameters of binocular field size: maximum binocular field width, vertical binocular field extent, and angular separation between the eye-bill projection and the direction of maximum binocular field width. Foraging behaviour and body mass each influenced two descriptors of binocular field shape. Phylogenetic relatedness had minimal influence on binocular field size and shape, apart from vertical binocular field extent. Binocular field differences are associated with specific foraging behaviours, as related to the perceptual challenges of obtaining different food items from aquatic and terrestrial environments

A framework for managing airport grasslands and birds amidst conflicting priorities

Management of modern airports is a task beset by conflicting priorities. Airports are vital to the global market economy, but impose costly environmental disturbances including habitat loss, noise, reduced air quality, erosion, introduction of invasive organisms, and polluted storm-water runoff (Blackwell et al. 2009). Airport environments also attract some wildlife hazardous to aviation safety, namely species involved in wildlife-aircraft collisions or ‘strikes’ (ICAO 2001, Blackwell et al. 2009, DeVault et al. 2011). Since 1912 at least 276 human lives have been lost due to bird strikes (Thorpe 2010), and from 1990 to 2010, more than 106 000 bird strikes involving civil aircraft were reported to the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA; http://wildlife-mitigation. tc.faa.gov/wildlife/). Dolbeer (2006) reported that for strikes resulting in substantial aircraft damage (ICAO 1989), 66% occurred below 152 m altitude and within 1.5 km of a runway for airports servicing piston-powered aircraft only, and within 3 km of a runway for airports servicing turbine-powered aircraft (FAA 2009). Consequently, aviation authorities prioritize human safety over wildlife conservation in management of airport habitats (ICAO 2001, FAA 2009). Despite these problems, airports have been proposed as candidates for biodiversity conservation (Kelly & Allan 2006, Blackwell et al. 2009). For example, Kutschbach- Brohl et al. (2010) report that airport grasslands can provide habitat for a range of arthropod communities (e.g. Lepidoptera), and suggest the possibility of conserving these communities while minimizing provision of prey resources to birds recognized as hazardous to aviation. Moreover, declines in grassland bird populations in Europe and North America due to agricultural intensification and development have focused attention on enhancing quality and quantity of remnant grasslands (Herkert 1994, Vickery et al. 2004), including airport grasslands. In North America, airport properties have been identified as key areas of remnant grasslands important to obligate grassland bird species; species that both nest and forage in grasslands (Vickery et al. 1994, Askins et al. 2007). Airport properties in the contiguous USA include \u3e 330 000 ha of grassland, mostly annually mown areas, constituting 39–50% of airport property (DeVault et al. 2012). However, there is little research specific to airport environments that considers food resources for birds (Bernhardt et al. 2010, Kutschbach-Brohl et al. 2010), how birds perceive and react to predation risk (Baker & Brooks 1981) or disturbance (Kershner & Bollinger 1996), and no adequate assessment of how grassland management might affect strike risk (Blackwell et al. 2009, Martin et al. 2011). In this context, we contend that promoting conservation of obligate grassland birds and managing to reduce bird hazards to aviation safety combines two potentially conflicting objectives in a single management framework. Ecologically based guidance to solve this potential conflict is limited, if not oversimplified. Here, we question the potential use of airports to conserve grassland birds, and assess the challenges in managing airport grasslands in light of current ecological and behavioral frameworks. We consider conditions for conservation of obligate grassland birds on airports, and evidence on the use of airports by frequently struck, grassland birds (both obligate and facultative). We also provide a framework to manage grassland birds at airports, given current information and uncertainty. Because of the availability of strike data via the FAA, our focus is on North America. However, problems associated with bird use of airport grasslands are international (ICAO 2001). Therefore, our ultimate purpose is better to inform current management, but also identify research gaps and establish specific predictions that will guide future studies on the ecological basis of use of airport grasslands by birds